National Occupational Classification (NOC) 2016 Version 1.1

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National Occupational Classification (NOC) 2016 Version 1.1
Introduction
Hierarchical structure

4 - Occupations in education, law and social, community and government services

Occupations in this category are concerned with law, teaching, counselling, conducting social science research, developing government policy, and administering government and other programs. Occupations providing religious services and leadership are included in this category. These occupations usually require completion of a related post-secondary program. Individuals who work as paralegals, social service workers or educators and instructors who are not part of the elementary, secondary or post-secondary school system are usually required to complete additional formal education to progress to professional occupations.

41 - Professional occupations in law and social, community and government services

This major group comprises professional occupations in law and social, community and government services. It includes judges, lawyers, Quebec notaries, psychologists, social workers and counsellors; as well as policy researchers, consultants and program officers in a variety of fields; and certain other professional occupations in the social sciences.

416 - Policy and program researchers, consultants and officers

This minor group includes policy researchers, analysts, consultants, and program officers in a variety of fields and certain other professional occupations in social science not elsewhere classified. They are employed by federal, provincial and municipal governments, and government agencies; universities, educational institutions, and school boards; research, international, non-government, and environmental and conservation organizations; consulting, marketing, and investment companies; banks; unions, and professional and business associations; recreation, sports, and fitness facilities; hospitals, health care facilities, retirement homes, and community centres and agencies; and in industry and manufacturing; or they may be self-employed.

4161 - Natural and applied science policy researchers, consultants and program officers

Natural and applied science policy researchers, consultants and program officers conduct research, prepare reports, provide consultation and advice and administer programs in a variety of areas related to the natural and applied sciences. They are employed by federal, provincial and municipal governments, computer and office furniture manufacturers, educational institutions, research organizations, consulting firms, environmental and conservation organizations, or they may be self-employed.

  • Illustrative example(s)

    • certified ergonomist
    • emergency management analyst
    • emergency preparedness planner
    • energy policy analyst
    • environmental impact analyst
    • environmental issues lobbyist
    • environmental program development supervisor
    • ergonomics specialist
    • fisheries analyst
    • industrial hygienist
    • natural and applied sciences program officer
    • natural resources policy analyst
    • occupational hygienist
    • recycling program co-ordinator
    • scientific consultant
    • technology transfer officer
    • transportation safety analyst

    All examples

  • Inclusion(s)

    • environmental education consultant
    • patent agent
    • patent searcher

  • Exclusion(s)

    • Architecture and science managers (See 0212 Architecture and science managers)
    • Health policy researchers, consultants and program officers (See 4165 Health policy researchers, consultants and program officers)
    • Life science professionals (See 212 Life science professionals)
    • Other engineers (See 214 Other engineers)
    • Patent lawyers (See 4112 Lawyers and Quebec notaries)
    • Physical science professionals (See 211 Physical science professionals)
    • Professional occupations in engineering (See 213 Civil, mechanical, electrical and chemical engineers)

  • Main duties

    Ergonomists or human factors specialists perform some or all of the following duties:

    • Conduct research and advise on, and intervene in the physical, social and psychological interrelationships between persons, their equipment and working or living environments to ensure that the design, configuration and use of equipment, procedures and environmental conditions maximize safety, productivity and comfort.

    Occupational or industrial hygienists perform some or all of the following duties:

    • Study, evaluate and control physical, chemical and biological hazards and stresses in the workplace.
    • Report and document investigations and conclusions
    • Suggest changes to work environments and processes
    • Provide information to workers and managers or employers on methods to reduce the risk of injury or illness from specific occupational hazards
    • May teach safe work procedures, participate in emergency response planning, testify at hearings and report findings at scientific conferences or in scientific journals.

    Patent agents perform some or all of the following duties:

    • Advise clients on elements of patent law and on the patentability of inventions
    • Conduct patent searches
    • Prepare patent applications
    • Represent clients before the patent office.

    Technology transfer officers perform some or all of the following duties:

    • Transfer and integrate new technologies, usually from university or government research and development environments, to commercial and industrial applications and ensure the protection of intellectual property of researchers and developers.

    Science policy and program officers perform some or all of the following duties:

    • Conduct research and advise on policies or develop or administer programs related to transportation, emergency preparedness, communications, natural resources, agriculture, the environment, traditional and alternative energy technologies, land use, recycling and other scientific fields
    • Promote public awareness and education on issues such as utilization of natural resources, the environment, and reprocessing and reduction of waste.

  • Employment requirements

    • A bachelor's degree or college diploma in a related scientific or technical discipline is usually required for occupations in this unit group.
    • A master's degree in a related scientific discipline may be required.
    • Certification through the Canadian College of Certified Professional Ergonomists is required to use the title "Canadian Certified Professional Ergonomist (CCPE)". Membership with the Association of Canadian Ergonomists may be required.
    • Occupational hygienists may require certification by the Canadian Registration Board of Occupational Hygienists.
    • Patent agents require 12 months of work experience in the patent field and successful completion of examinations set by the Commissioner of Patents. They may also be required to be listed in the register of patent agents.
    • Occupations in this group that are involved in green building design and technologies development may require the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certification offered by the Canadian Green Building Council.

  • Additional information

    • Progression to supervisory or managerial positions in these fields is possible with experience.
4162 - Economists and economic policy researchers and analysts

Economists and economic policy researchers and analysts conduct research, monitor data, analyze information and prepare reports and plans to resolve economic and business problems and develop models to analyze, explain and forecast economic behaviour and patterns. They advise on matters such as finance, fiscal and monetary policy, international trade, agricultural and natural resource commodities and labour and industrial markets. They are employed by government departments and agencies and throughout the private sector in associations, unions, research organizations, banks and investment firms.

  • Illustrative example(s)

    • agricultural economist
    • economic advisor
    • economic analyst
    • economic policy analyst
    • economist
    • energy economist
    • financial economist
    • industrial economist
    • international trade economist
    • investment economist
    • labour economist
    • natural resources economist
    • tax economist
    • trade economist

    All examples

  • Inclusion(s)

    • business analyst - economics
    • consumer advisor - economics
    • salary analyst - economic policy
    • wage analyst - economic policy

  • Exclusion(s)

    • Business development officers and marketing researchers and consultants (See 4163 Business development officers and marketing researchers and consultants)
    • Economists who teach at universities (See 4011 University professors and lecturers)
    • Financial and investment analysts (See 1112 Financial and investment analysts)
    • Government managers - economic analysis, policy development and program administration (See 0412 Government managers - economic analysis, policy development and program administration)
    • Labour policy analysts (See 4164 Social policy researchers, consultants and program officers)

  • Main duties

    Economists and economic policy researchers and analysts perform some or all of the following duties:

    • Conduct research and develop models to analyze, explain and forecast economic behaviour and patterns, and devise methods for collection and analysis of data
    • Forecast production and consumption of specific products and services based on records of past production and consumption and general economic and industry-specific conditions
    • Prepare forecasts of income and expenditure, interest rates and exchange rates
    • Analyze factors which determine economic growth and advise government agencies on policies to increase economic activities
    • Analyze factors which determine labour force participation, employment, wages, unemployment and other labour market outcomes
    • Study mathematical formulae and statistical techniques and apply them to the testing and quantifying of economic theories and the solution of economic problems
    • Study the nature of money, credit and the operation of banks and other financial institutions to develop monetary policies and forecasts of financial activity
    • Monitor economic data to assess the effectiveness, and advise on the appropriateness, of monetary and fiscal policies
    • Examine problems related to the economic activity of individual companies
    • Examine financial methods, production costs and techniques and marketing policies to recommend possible improvements
    • Examine statistical data on the exchange of goods and services among nations
    • Forecast production and consumption of renewable resources and supply, consumption and depletion of non-renewable resources
    • Conduct research on market conditions in local, regional or national area to set sales and pricing levels for goods and services, to assess market potential and future trends and to develop business strategies
    • Monitor regional and local economic trends
    • Study regulatory processes and provide material in support of legal proceedings with government and other parties.

  • Employment requirements

    • A master's degree in economics or in a related discipline such as business administration or statistics is usually required.
    • A doctorate in economics may be required.

  • Additional information

    • Progression to managerial positions in economics is possible with experience.
4163 - Business development officers and marketing researchers and consultants

Business development officers and marketing researchers and consultants conduct research, formulate policies and manage programs to stimulate industrial and commercial business investment or tourism in urban and rural areas, or to promote commercial or industrial products and services. They are employed by government departments, international organizations, marketing firms and business associations or may be self-employed.

  • Illustrative example(s)

    • business development officer
    • community economic development consultant
    • economic development officer
    • industrial development officer
    • market researcher
    • marketing analyst
    • marketing consultant - market research
    • regional development analyst
    • tourism development officer
    • tourism industry consultant

    All examples

  • Inclusion(s)

    • economic forecaster
    • economic research officer

  • Exclusion(s)

    • Economic development managers (See 0412 Government managers - economic analysis, policy development and program administration)
    • Economists and economic policy researchers and analysts (See 4162 Economists and economic policy researchers and analysts)
    • Financial and investment analysts (See 1112 Financial and investment analysts)
    • International development or aid officers (See 4164 Social policy researchers, consultants and program officers)
    • Marketing managers (See 0124 Advertising, marketing and public relations managers)
    • Other financial officers (See 1114 Other financial officers)
    • Urban and land use planners (See 2153 Urban and land use planners)

  • Main duties

    Business development officers and marketing researchers and consultants perform some or all of the following duties:

    • Develop policies and administer programs to promote industrial and commercial business investment in urban and rural areas
    • Design market research questionnaires
    • Conduct social or economic surveys on local, regional or national areas to assess development potential and future trends
    • Plan development projects and co-ordinate activities with representatives of a wide variety of industrial and commercial enterprises, community and business associations and government agencies
    • Assess business opportunities and develop strategies to attract venture capital
    • Respond to enquiries from members of the business community and general public concerning development opportunities
    • Review and evaluate commercial or industrial development proposals and provide advice on procedures and requirements for government approval
    • Conduct surveys and analyze data on the buying habits and preferences of wholesale or retail consumers
    • Evaluate customer service and store environments
    • Conduct comparative research on marketing strategies for industrial and commercial products
    • Develop social and economic profiles of urban and rural areas to encourage industrial and commercial investment and development.
    • Prepare reports, research papers, educational texts or articles
    • Plan and develop E-commerce strategies
    • Provide consultation on planning and starting of new businesses.

  • Employment requirements

    • A bachelor's degree in economics, commerce, business administration or public administration is required.
    • Certification as a certified economic developer (Ec.D.) may be required.
    • Certification as a Certified Marketing Research Professional (CMRP) may be required.

  • Additional information

    • Progression to managerial positions is possible with experience.
4164 - Social policy researchers, consultants and program officers

Social policy researchers, consultants and program officers conduct research, develop policy and implement or administer programs in areas such as consumer affairs, employment, home economics, immigration, law enforcement, corrections, human rights, housing, labour, family services, foreign aid and international development. They are employed by government departments and agencies, industry, hospitals, educational institutions, consulting establishments, professional associations, research institutes, non-government organizations and international organizations or they may be self-employed.

  • Illustrative example(s)

    • Aboriginal issues lobbyist
    • child welfare policy analyst
    • community policing program consultant
    • community social development officer
    • consumer advisor
    • employment equity policy consultant
    • home economist
    • housing policy analyst
    • human rights officer
    • immigration policy analyst
    • international aid and development project officer
    • labour policy analyst
    • social policy researcher
    • social services planner
    • social survey researcher (except statistician)

    All examples

  • Inclusion(s)

    • Aboriginal affairs development officer
    • Aboriginal employment program officer
    • affirmative action advisor

  • Exclusion(s)

    • Business development officers and marketing researchers and consultants (See 4163 Business development officers and marketing researchers and consultants)
    • Economists and economic policy researchers and analysts (See 4162 Economists and economic policy researchers and analysts)
    • Government managers - health and social policy development and program administration (See 0411 Government managers - health and social policy development and program administration)
    • Health policy researchers, consultants and program officers (See 4165 Health policy researchers, consultants and program officers)
    • Home economics teachers (See 4031 Secondary school teachers)
    • Non-government managers in social policy (See 0423 Managers in social, community and correctional services)
    • Social and community service workers (See 4212 Social and community service workers)
    • Social workers (See 4152 Social workers)

  • Main duties

    The following is a summary of main duties for some occupations in this unit group:

    • Social policy researchers develop social programs and policies, social legislation, or proposals based on demographic, social and economic research, analysis and the evaluation of pilot projects.
    • Home economists advise and assist consumers on the selection and proper use of food products, textiles and other consumer goods and teach household management skills. They may also provide consultative services in the areas of development and promotion of new food products, retail buying, social program administration and small business endeavours.
    • Housing policy analysts identify and assess economic, demographic, and social developments and report on their implications for housing policy.
    • International aid and development project officers plan, organize and administer foreign aid and international development policies and programs.
    • Social survey researchers develop questionnaires, co-ordinate and conduct surveys, analyse data, and compile and interpret statistics on social issues and policy areas.
    • Social services planners conduct research, develop social programs, assess, co-ordinate and develop awareness of existing social services, and ensure that duplication of services is avoided. They may also work with land use planners to determine the impact of major land use plans for transportation, housing and recreational facilities projects.

  • Employment requirements

    • A bachelor's degree or college diploma in a social science or related discipline, or in business administration is usually required.
    • A master's degree in a social science or related discipline or in business administration may be required.
    • Home economists require a bachelor's degree in home economics, home economics education, human ecology, nutrition and food sciences or family and consumer studies.
    • Registration is available, but voluntary, for home economists but the use of the designation "Professional Home Economist" is regulated in New Brunswick, Ontario, Manitoba and Alberta, and "Registered Professional Home Economist" in British Columbia.
    • Registration with the Immigration Consultants of Canada Regulatory Council is required for Regulated Canadian immigration consultants.

  • Additional information

    • Progression to managerial positions is possible with experience.
4165 - Health policy researchers, consultants and program officers

Health policy researchers, consultants and program officers conduct research, produce reports and administer health care policies and programs. They are employed by government departments and agencies, consulting establishments, universities, research institutes, hospitals, community agencies, educational institutions, professional associations, non-governmental organizations and international organizations.

  • Illustrative example(s)

    • child health care programs planning officer
    • drug and alcohol abuse consultant
    • health care consultant
    • health care planner
    • health policy research analyst
    • health promotion program officer
    • health services researcher
    • mental health programs consultant
    • policy development officer - nursing homes

    All examples

  • Exclusion(s)

    • Education policy researchers, consultants and program officers (See 4166 Education policy researchers, consultants and program officers)
    • Government managers - health and social policy development and program administration (See 0411 Government managers - health and social policy development and program administration)
    • Managers in health care (See 0311 Managers in health care)
    • Social and community service workers (See 4212 Social and community service workers)
    • Social policy researchers, consultants and program officers (See 4164 Social policy researchers, consultants and program officers)

  • Main duties

    Health policy researchers, consultants and program officers perform some or all of the following duties:

    • Assist in developing government health policy by reviewing relevant literature, conducting interviews, collecting and analysing statistical data, and providing advice to senior managers and officials on issues such as health promotion, regulation, standards and financing
    • Design and implement health projects or programs
    • Maintain, update and manage health information databases
    • Compile and analyse statistical information provided by private and public health care institutions and organizations and produce reports
    • Monitor and evaluate health care programs operated by government departments and agencies or private organizations
    • Assess compliance with health standards and identify remedial action if necessary
    • Conduct evaluations and assessments of health projects and programs
    • Provide consulting services to clients in private establishments or government departments or agencies
    • Respond to internal and external program and policy information requests
    • Produce newsletters, magazines and other documents to provide information to association or organization members or the general public
    • Present the views of an association or organization to politicians, government officials, the media or the general public.

    Health policy researchers, consultants and program officers may specialize in a particular area of health policy development, research or program administration such as addiction research.

  • Employment requirements

    • A bachelor's degree or college diploma in health science, public administration, recreation administration or hospital administration, or a bachelor's degree in social science, is required.
    • A graduate degree in health, social science or an administrative discipline may be required.
    • Several years of experience in the health field as a health care professional or as a community or social service worker are usually required.

  • Additional information

    • Progression to managerial positions is possible with experience.
4166 - Education policy researchers, consultants and program officers

Education policy researchers, consultants and program officers conduct research, produce reports and administer elementary, secondary and post-secondary education policies and programs. They are employed by government departments, school boards, research institutes, professional associations and educational and other organizations throughout the public and private sectors, or they may be self-employed.

  • Illustrative example(s)

    • curriculum developer
    • curriculum planner
    • education consultant
    • education outreach program co-ordinator
    • education policy officer
    • education policy supervisor
    • education program co-ordinator
    • education program officer
    • education researcher
    • special education co-ordinator

    All examples

  • Inclusion(s)

    • language assessor
    • school inspector

  • Exclusion(s)

    • College and other vocational instructors (See 4021 College and other vocational instructors)
    • Educational counsellors (See 4033 Educational counsellors)
    • Elementary school and kindergarten teachers (See 4032 Elementary school and kindergarten teachers)
    • Government managers - education policy development and program administration (See 0413 Government managers - education policy development and program administration)
    • Psychology assistants (except university) (See 4164 Social policy researchers, consultants and program officers)
    • Secondary school teachers (See 4031 Secondary school teachers)

  • Main duties

    Education policy researchers, consultants and program officers perform some or all of the following duties:

    • Conduct research, produce reports and administer education policies and programs
    • Evaluate curriculum programs and recommend improvements
    • Develop the structure, content and objectives of new programs
    • Conduct statistical analyses to determine cost and effectiveness of education policies and programs
    • Provide ongoing professional development, training and consultative services to teachers and other professionals throughout the public and private sector
    • Develop teaching materials and other resources for program delivery
    • Deliver presentations at conferences, workshops and symposia
    • May supervise the work of other education policy researchers, consultants or program officers
    • May administer specialized testing and assessment programs.

  • Employment requirements

    • A bachelor's degree in education or in a discipline such as social science or business administration is required.
    • A master's degree in education may be required.
    • Specialized training or certification may be required.
    • Several years of experience as a school teacher are usually required.
    • A teacher's certificate for the province of employment is usually required when employed by provincial education ministries.

  • Additional information

    • Progression to managerial positions is possible with experience.
4167 - Recreation, sports and fitness policy researchers, consultants and program officers

This unit group includes those who oversee and administer recreation, sports and fitness programs and activities, provide consulting services, conduct research and develop programs and policies related to recreation, sports and physical fitness. They are employed by federal, provincial and municipal governments, recreation, sports, fitness and health care facilities, retirement homes, community centres, sports and fitness consulting firms and organizations, or they may be self-employed.

  • Illustrative example(s)

    • fitness policy analyst
    • recreation consultant
    • recreologist
    • sports analyst
    • sports and recreation consultant
    • sports consultant
    • sports policy analyst
    • sports program supervisor

    All examples

  • Inclusion(s)

    • fitness consultant
    • fitness co-ordinator

  • Exclusion(s)

    • Program leaders and instructors in recreation, sport and fitness (See 5254 Program leaders and instructors in recreation, sport and fitness)
    • Recreation, sports and fitness program and service directors (See 0513 Recreation, sports and fitness program and service directors)

  • Main duties

    The following is a summary of main duties for some occupations in this unit group:

    • Recreation, sports and fitness policy analysts conduct research and develop government policies related to recreation, sports, fitness and athletic safety and standards.
    • Sports program consultants provide expert advice and consulting services to sports associations and other organizations in the design, development and administration of sports programs and activities.
    • Fitness program consultants provide expert advice and consulting services to community groups, corporations, schools and other organizations in the design and development of fitness programs and activities. They may write proposals and public relations statements for corporations, industry and the fitness community.
    • Recreation program consultants provide expert advice and consulting services to communities, corporations, institutions and other organizations in the design, development and promotion of recreation programs and activities.
    • Recreation, sports and fitness program supervisors develop, plan and co-ordinate sports, fitness and recreation programs, and special sporting events.

  • Employment requirements

    • A university degree in recreation administration, sports administration, physical education, kinesiology or related discipline combined with some work experience in a related field
      or
      A college diploma in a recreation, sports or fitness program combined with some experience in a related field is required.
    • Recreation, sports and fitness program supervisors require experience as program leaders or instructors in recreation, sports and fitness. Certification in program specialization, such as fitness or lifesaving, may also be required.

  • Additional information

    • Mobility among recreation, sports and fitness consultants may be restricted within individual area of expertise.
    • Recreation, sports and fitness program supervisors may progress to recreation, sports and fitness management positions with experience.
4168 - Program officers unique to government

Program officers in this unit group are primarily concerned with the administration and operation of government institutions, such as Parliament, and activities unique to the operations of government, such as international relations, federal-provincial affairs, elections and tribunals.

  • Illustrative example(s)

    • attaché
    • elections officer
    • federal-provincial relations officer
    • foreign service officer
    • intergovernmental affairs officer
    • office of the Speaker officer
    • protocol officer
    • returning officer
    • royal commission officer
    • standing or select committee officer
    • tribunal officer

    All examples

  • Exclusion(s)

    • Administrative officers (See 1221 Administrative officers)
    • Court officers and justices of the peace (See 1227 Court officers and justices of the peace)
    • Economists and economic policy researchers and analysts (See 4162 Economists and economic policy researchers and analysts)
    • Employment insurance, immigration, border services and revenue officers (See 1228 Employment insurance, immigration, border services and revenue officers)
    • Executive assistants (See 1222 Executive assistants)
    • Social policy researchers, consultants and program officers (See 4164 Social policy researchers, consultants and program officers)

  • Main duties

    Program officers unique to government perform some or all of the following duties:

    • Advise politicians or diplomats on the social, economic and political effects of government decisions on other governments in Canada or abroad
    • Explain Canadian foreign and domestic policies to governments and nationals of foreign countries, and act on behalf of Canada abroad
    • Collect, monitor and analyze international pressures, issues and communications and brief on intelligence and security matters
    • Plan intergovernmental meetings and conferences with officers of other municipal, provincial or federal governments
    • Co-ordinate the logistics and administration of elections within constituencies and ensure that electoral and voting procedures are followed
    • Co-ordinate administrative support services for legislative committees, royal commissions or tribunals
    • Participate as a member of a board or tribunal
    • Plan logistics and oversee diplomatic protocol of official visits to Canada by foreign politicians and dignitaries.

  • Employment requirements

    • A bachelor's degree is usually required.
    • A master's degree may be required.
    • Several years of experience as a researcher, consultant or program administrator may be required.
    • Foreign service officers are accepted on the basis of competitive examination.
4169 - Other professional occupations in social science, n.e.c.

This unit group includes anthropologists, archaeologists, geographers, historians, linguists, political scientists, sociologists and other professional occupations in social science not elsewhere classified. They are employed in universities and throughout the public and private sectors.

  • Illustrative example(s)

    • anthropologist
    • archaeologist
    • geographer
    • gerontologist
    • historian
    • linguist
    • political scientist
    • psychometrist
    • sociologist

    All examples

  • Inclusion(s)

    • criminologist

  • Exclusion(s)

    • College and other vocational instructors (See 4021 College and other vocational instructors)
    • Economists and economic policy researchers and analysts (See 4162 Economists and economic policy researchers and analysts)
    • Mathematicians, statisticians and actuaries (See 2161 Mathematicians, statisticians and actuaries)
    • Psychologists (See 4151 Psychologists)
    • Secondary school teachers (See 4031 Secondary school teachers)
    • Social policy researchers, consultants and program officers (See 4164 Social policy researchers, consultants and program officers)
    • University professors and lecturers (See 4011 University professors and lecturers)

  • Main duties

    The following is a summary of main duties for some occupations in this unit group:

    • Anthropologists conduct studies of the origin, development and functioning of human societies and cultures and of human evolution, changing physical characteristics and geographical distribution.
    • Archaeologists study artifacts (objects and structures) to reconstruct past economic, social, political and intellectual life.
    • Geographers study and analyse the spatial distribution and interrelationship of physical, biological, cultural and social patterns.
    • Historians conduct research into one or more phases or aspects of past human activity and interpret and document findings.
    • Linguists study the origin, structure and development of languages and apply linguistic theory to problems in teaching, translation and communications.
    • Political scientists conduct research into the theory, origin, development, interrelationships and functioning of political institutions, political movements and individual political behaviour.
    • Psychometricians develop psychological tests, scales and measures, and may administer or apply and interpret such tests, scales and measures. Psychometrists administer and score psychological tests, usually under the supervision of a registered psychologist.
    • Sociologists study the development, structure, social patterns and interrelationships of human society.
    • Other social science professionals included in this group specialize in particular areas of social sciences and humanities disciplines. These include criminologists (specialists in the study of crime and criminals), gerontologists (specialists in the phenomena and problems of ageing), graphoanalysts (specialists in handwriting analysis) and others.

    Specialization usually exists within each of these occupations.

  • Employment requirements

    • A master's or doctoral degree in the discipline is usually required.

  • Additional information

    • Specialization within each occupation occurs through specialized university study or through experience.
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